View source for Self-awareness

{{Short description|Capacity for introspection and individuation as a subject}}
{{Distinguish|Self-consciousness}}
{{Primary sources|date=September 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2014}}

[[File:Pieter Bruegel the Elder - The Painter and the Buyer, ca. 1566 - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''[[The Painter and The Buyer|The Painter and the Buyer]]'' (1565). In this drawing by [[Pieter Brueghel the Elder]], the painter is thought to be a self-portrait.]]
{{Self sidebar}}

In [[philosophy of self|philosophy]], '''self-awareness''' is the awareness and reflection of one's own [[personality]] or [[individuality]], including traits, feelings, and behaviors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/self-awareness|title=self-awareness|website=Merriam-Webster|date=September 15, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The roots of human self-awareness {{!}} Iowa Now - The University of Iowa |url=https://now.uiowa.edu/news/2012/08/roots-human-self-awareness |access-date=2025-01-21 |website=now.uiowa.edu |language=en}}</ref> It is not to be confused with [[consciousness]] in the sense of [[qualia]]. While consciousness is being aware of one's body and environment, self-awareness is the [[Metacognition|recognition of that consciousness]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jabr|first1=Ferris|title=Self-Awareness with a Simple Brain|journal=Scientific American Mind|volume=23|issue=5|pages=28–29|doi=10.1038/scientificamericanmind1112-28|year=2012}}</ref> Self-awareness is how an individual [[experiences]] and understands their own [[Character structure|character]], [[feeling]]s, [[Motivation|motives]], and [[desire]]s.

==Biology==
===Mirror neurons===
{{main|Neural basis of self}}

Researchers are investigating which part of the [[brain]] allows people to be self-aware and how people are biologically programmed to be self-aware. [[Vilayanur S. Ramachandran|V.S. Ramachandran]] speculates that [[mirror neuron]]s may provide the neurological basis of human self-awareness.<ref>{{cite book |last1 = Oberman|first1= L. | last2 = Ramachandran|first2= V.S. |chapter = Reflections on the Mirror Neuron System: Their Evolutionary Functions Beyond Motor Representation | editor-last = Pineda|editor-first= J.A. |title= Mirror Neuron Systems: The Role of Mirroring Processes in Social Cognition |url = https://archive.org/details/mirrorneuronsyst00pine |url-access = subscription | publisher = Humana Press |year= 2009 |pages= [https://archive.org/details/mirrorneuronsyst00pine/page/n49 39]–62 |isbn= 978-1-934115-34-3}}</ref> In an essay written for [[Edge.org]] in 2009, Ramachandran gave the following explanation of his [[theory]]: "[T]hese neurons can not only help simulate other people's behavior but can be turned 'inward'—as it were—to create second-order representations or meta-representations of your ''own'' earlier brain processes. This could be the neural basis of introspection, and of the reciprocity of self awareness and other awareness. There is obviously a chicken-or-egg question here as to which evolved first, but... The main point is that the two co-evolved, mutually enriching each other to create the mature representation of self that characterizes modern humans."<ref>{{cite web | last = Ramachandran|first=V.S. | title = Self Awareness: The Last Frontier| url = https://www.edge.org/conversation/self-awareness-the-last-frontier | website=[[Edge.org]] | year = 2009 | access-date = July 26, 2011}}</ref>

===Body===
Bodily (self-)awareness is related to [[proprioception]] and [[Mental image|visualization]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Bodily Awareness|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/bodily-awareness/|date=2020-07-08|orig-date=2011-08-09|website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|first=Frédérique|last=de Vignemont}}</ref> In health and medicine, body awareness refers to a person's ability to direct their focus on various internal sensations accurately. Both [[proprioception]] and [[interoception]] allow individuals to be consciously aware of multiple sensations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mehling |first1=Wolf E. |last2=Gopisetty |first2=Viranjini |last3=Daubenmier |first3=Jennifer |last4=Price |first4=Cynthia J. |last5=Hecht |first5=Frederick M. |last6=Stewart |first6=Anita |title=Body Awareness: Construct and Self-Report Measures |journal=PLOS ONE |date=19 May 2009 |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=e5614 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0005614 |pmid=19440300 |pmc=2680990 |bibcode=2009PLoSO...4.5614M |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Proprioception]] allows individuals and patients to focus on sensations in their muscles and joints, posture, and balance, while [[interoception]] is used to determine sensations of the internal organs, such as fluctuating heartbeat, respiration, lung pain, or satiety. Over-acute body-awareness, under-acute body-awareness, and distorted body-awareness are symptoms present in a variety of health disorders and conditions, such as [[obesity]], [[anorexia nervosa]], and chronic joint pain.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Garfinkel | first1=Paul E. | last2=Moldofsky | first2=Harvey | last3=Garner | first3=David M. | last4=Stancer | first4=Harvey C. | last5=Coscina | first5=Donald V. | title=Body Awareness in Anorexia Nervosa: Disturbances in 'Body Image' and 'Satiety' | journal=Psychosomatic Medicine | publisher=Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) | volume=40 | issue=6 | year=1978 | issn=0033-3174 | doi=10.1097/00006842-197810000-00004 | pages=487–498| pmid=734025 | s2cid=28010263 }}</ref> For example, a distorted perception of [[satiety]] is present in a patient suffering from [[anorexia nervosa]].

==Psychology==
Self-awareness has been called "arguably the most fundamental issue in psychology, from both a developmental and an evolutionary perspective."<ref name="Rochat 2003 717–731">{{cite journal |last1=Rochat |first1=Philippe |date=December 2003 |title=Five levels of self-awareness as they unfold early in life |journal=Consciousness and Cognition |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=717–731 |doi=10.1016/s1053-8100(03)00081-3 |pmid=14656513 |s2cid=10241157}}</ref>

Self-awareness theory, developed by Duval and Wicklund in their 1972 landmark book ''A theory of objective self awareness'', states that when we focus on ourselves, we evaluate and compare our current behavior to our internal standards and values. This elicits a state of [[objective self-awareness]]. We become self-conscious as objective evaluators of ourselves.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Duval |first1=Shelley |last2=Wicklund |first2=Robert A. |title=A Theory of Objective Self Awareness |year=1972 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=9780122256509 |url=https://archive.org/details/theoryofobjectiv0000duv|url-access=registration |oclc=643552644 }}{{page needed|date=August 2020}}</ref> Self-awareness should not be confused with [[self-consciousness]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Anthony |title=Self Consciousness: An Alternative Anthropology of Identity |year= 2002 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-203-41898-7 }}{{page needed|date=August 2020}}</ref> Various emotional states are intensified by self-awareness. However, some people may seek to increase their self-awareness through these outlets{{Specify|reason=which outlets? emotional states?|date=September 2023}}. People are more likely to align their behavior with their standards when they are made self-aware. People are negatively affected{{How|date=September 2023}} if they do not live up to their personal standards. Various environmental cues and situations induce awareness of the self, such as mirrors, an audience, or being videotaped or recorded. These cues also increase the accuracy of personal memory.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-1489-3_1 |chapter=Introduction & Overview |title=Self-Awareness & Causal Attribution |year=2001 |last1=Duval |first1=Thomas Shelley |last2=Silvia |first2=Paul J. |pages=1–15 |isbn=978-1-4613-5579-3 }}</ref>

In one of [[Andreas Demetriou]]'s [[neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development]], self-awareness develops systematically from birth through the life span and it {{clarify|reason=what does that mean, concretely, causally?|text=is a major factor for the development of|date=September 2023}} general inferential processes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Demetriou |first1=Andreas |last2=Kazi |first2=Smaragda |title=Unity and Modularity in the Mind and Self: Studies on the Relationships between Self-awareness, Personality, and Intellectual Development from Childhood to Adolescence |date=February 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-69601-7 }}{{page needed|date=August 2020}}</ref> Self-awareness about cognitive processes contributes to general [[intelligence]] on a par with{{ambiguous|reason="A participates in B on a par with C" could mean "A participates in B to a similar extent to which A participates in C" or "A participates in B to a similar extent to which C participates in B"|date=September 2023}} processing efficiency functions, such as [[working memory]], [[cognitive processing speed|processing speed]], and [[reasoning]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Demetriou |first1=Andreas |last2=Kazi |first2=Smaragda |title=Self-awareness in g (with processing efficiency and reasoning) |journal=Intelligence |date=May 2006 |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=297–317 |doi=10.1016/j.intell.2005.10.002 }}</ref>

[[Albert Bandura]]'s theory of [[self-efficacy]] describes "the belief in one's capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations." A person's belief in their ability to succeed sets the stage for how they think, behave, and feel. Someone with a strong self-efficacy, for example, views challenges as tasks to engage in, and is not easily discouraged by setbacks. Such a person is aware of their flaws and abilities and chooses to utilize these qualities to the best of their ability. Someone with a weak sense of self-efficacy evades challenges and quickly feels discouraged by setbacks. They may not be aware of these negative reactions and therefore, may not be prompted to change their attitude. This concept is central to Bandura's social cognitive theory, "which emphasizes the role of observational learning, social experience, and reciprocal determinism in the development of personality."<ref>{{citation |last1=Cherry |first1=Kendra |title=Self Efficacy and Why Believing in Yourself Matters |date=5 July 2019 }}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=August 2020}}

== Human development ==

===Developmental stages===
Individuals become conscious of themselves through the development of self-awareness.<ref name="Rochat 2003 717–731" /> This particular type of self-development pertains to becoming conscious of one's body and one's state of mind—including thoughts, actions, ideas, feelings, and interactions with others.<ref name="Geangu 2008">{{cite journal |last1=Geangu |first1=Elena |date=March 2008 |title=Notes on self awareness development in early infancy |url=http://www.devpsychology.ro/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/y4t7x_Geangu_ccc_mar2008.pdf |journal=Cognitie, Creier, Comportament / Cognition, Brain, Behavior |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=103–113 |id={{ProQuest|201571751}}}}</ref> "Self-awareness does not occur suddenly through one particular behavior: it develops gradually through a succession of different behaviors all of which relate to the self."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bertenthal |first1=Bennett I. |last2=Fischer |first2=Kurt W. |year=1978 |title=Development of self-recognition in the infant |journal=Developmental Psychology |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=44–50 |citeseerx=10.1.1.550.1903 |doi=10.1037/0012-1649.14.1.44}}</ref> The monitoring of one's mental states is called [[metacognition]] and is considered to be an indicator that there is some concept of the self.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Couchman |first1=Justin J. |date=January 2015 |title=Humans and monkeys distinguish between self-generated, opposing, and random actions |journal=Animal Cognition |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=231–238 |doi=10.1007/s10071-014-0792-6 |pmc=4282946 |pmid=25108418}}</ref> 

According to [[Philippe Rochat (psychologist)|Philippe Rochat]], there are five levels of self-awareness that unfold in early human development and six potential prospects ranging from "Level 0" (having no self-awareness) advancing complexity to "Level 5" (explicit self-awareness):<ref name="Rochat 2003 717–731" />

* Level 0—[[Confusion]]: The person is unaware of any mirror reflection or the mirroring itself; they perceive a mirror image as an extension of their environment.

* Level 1—Differentiation: The individual realizes the mirror is able to reflect things. They see that what is in the mirror is of a different nature from what is surrounding them. At this level they can differentiate between their own movement in the mirror and the movement of the surrounding environment.

* Level 2—Situation: The individual can link the movements on the mirror to what is perceived within their own body.

* Level 3—[[Identification (psychology)|Identification]]: An individual can now see that what's in the mirror is not another person but actually them.

* Level 4—Permanence: The individual is able to identify the self in previous pictures looking different or younger. A "permanent self" is now experienced.

* Level 5—[[Self-consciousness]] or "meta" self-awareness: At this level not only is the self seen from a first person view but it is realized that it is also seen from a third person's view. A person who develops self consciousness begins to understand they can be in the mind of others: for instance, how they are seen from a public standpoint.

=== Infancy and early childhood ===
When a human infant comes into the world, they have no concept of what is around them, nor the significance of others around them.<ref name=":03">{{cite book |title=Integrative processes and socialization early to middle childhood |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |isbn=9780203767696 |editor-last1=Yawkey |editor-first1=Thomas D. |editor-last2=Johnson |editor-first2=James E.}}</ref>{{rp|46}} At first "the infant cannot recognize its own face".<ref name=":03" />{{rp|46}} At only a few months old, infants know the relationship between the proprioceptive and visual information they receive.<ref name="Moore & Mealiea 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Moore |first1=Chris |last2=Mealiea |first2=Jennifer |last3=Garon |first3=Nancy |last4=Povinelli |first4=Daniel J. |date=1 March 2007 |title=The Development of Body Self-Awareness |journal=Infancy |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=157–174 |doi=10.1111/j.1532-7078.2007.tb00220.x}}</ref> This is called "first-person self-awareness". 

By the time an average toddler reaches 18–24 months, they discover themselves and recognize their own reflection in the mirror,<ref name="Rochat 1998 102–109">{{cite journal |last1=Rochat |first1=Philippe |date=23 October 1998 |title=Self-perception and action in infancy |journal=Experimental Brain Research |volume=123 |issue=1–2 |pages=102–109 |citeseerx=10.1.1.602.6987 |doi=10.1007/s002210050550 |pmid=9835398 |s2cid=985947}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brownell |first1=Celia A. |last2=Zerwas |first2=Stephanie |last3=Ramani |first3=Geetha B. |date=September 2007 |title='So Big': The Development of Body Self-Awareness in Toddlers |journal=Child Development |volume=78 |issue=5 |pages=1426–1440 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01075.x |pmc=3351035 |pmid=17883440}}</ref> however the exact age varies with differing socioeconomic levels and differences relating to culture and parenting.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Broesch |first1=Tanya |last2=Callaghan |first2=Tara |last3=Henrich |first3=Joseph |last4=Murphy |first4=Christine |last5=Rochat |first5=Philippe |date=August 2011 |title=Cultural Variations in Children's Mirror Self-Recognition |journal=Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=1018–1029 |doi=10.1177/0022022110381114 |s2cid=18326326}}</ref> Those who reach this level of awareness recognize that they see themselves, for instance, seeing dirt on their face in the reflection and then touching their face to wipe it off. Soon after toddlers become reflectively self-aware, they begin to recognize their bodies as physical objects in time and space that interact and impact other objects. For instance, a toddler placed on a blanket, when asked to hand someone the blanket, will recognize that they need to get off it to be able to lift it.<ref name="Moore & Mealiea 2007" /> This is the final stage of body self-awareness and is called objective self-awareness.

By 18 months of age, an infant can communicate their name to others, and upon being shown a picture they are in, they can identify themselves. By two years old, they also usually acquire gender category and age categories, saying things such as "I am a girl, not a boy" and "I am a baby or child, not a grownup". As an infant moves to middle childhood and onwards to adolescence, they develop more advanced levels of self-awareness and self-description.<ref name=":03" /> By the age of 24 months, the toddler will observe and relate their own actions to actions of other people and the surrounding environment.<ref name="Rochat 1998 102–109" />

As a preschooler, they begin to give much more specific details about things, instead of generalizing. At this age,{{Specify|date=May 2024}} the child is in what [[Jean Piaget]] names the ''[[Piaget's theory of cognitive development|pre operational]]'' stage of development. The infant is very inaccurate at judging themselves. For example, an infant at this stage will not associate that they are strong with their ability to cross the jungle gym at their school, nor will they associate the fact that they can solve a math problem with their ability to count.<ref name=":03" />

Around school age, a child's awareness of their memory transitions into a sense of their self. At this stage, a child begins to develop interests, likes, and dislikes. This transition enables a person's awareness of their past, present, and future to grow as they remember their conscious experiences more often.<ref name="Rochat 1998 102–109" /> 

=== Adolescence ===
One becomes conscious of one's emotions during [[adolescence]]. Most children are aware of emotions such as [[shame]], [[Guilt (emotion)|guilt]], [[pride]], and [[embarrassment]] by the age of two, but do not fully understand how those emotions affect their life.<ref name="Zeanah">{{cite book|last=Zeanah|first=Charles|title=Handbook of Infant Mental Health|year=2009|publisher=Guilford Press|location=New York}}</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2023}} By age 13, children become more in touch with these emotions and begin to apply them to their lives. Many adolescents display happiness and self-confidence around friends, but hopelessness and anger around parents due to the fear of being a disappointment. Teenagers may feel intelligent and creative around teachers, while they may feel shy, uncomfortable, and nervous around people they are not familiar with.<ref name="Harter">{{cite book|last=Harter|first=Susan|title=The Construction of the Self|url=https://archive.org/details/constructionofse00susa|url-access=subscription|year=1999|publisher=Guilford Press|isbn=9781572304321}}</ref>

As children reach adolescence, their acute sense of emotion has widened into a meta-cognitive state in which mental health issues can become more prevalent due to heightened emotional and social development.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last1=Moran |first1=Orla |last2=Almada |first2=Priscilla |last3=McHugh |first3=Louise |date=January 2018 |title=An investigation into the relationship between the three selves (Self-as-Content, Self-as-Process, and Self-as-Context) and mental health in adolescents |journal=Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science |volume=7 |pages=55–62 |doi=10.1016/j.jcbs.2018.01.002|bibcode=2018JCBS....7...55M }}</ref> Self-awareness training may reduce anger management issues and reduce aggressive tendencies in adolescents.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal |last1=Mohammadiarya |first1=Alireza |last2=Sarabi |first2=Salar Dousti |last3=Shirazi |first3=Mahmoud |last4=Lachinani |first4=Fatemeh |last5=Roustaei |first5=Amin |last6=Abbasi |first6=Zohre |last7=Ghasemzadeh |first7=Azizreza |date=2012 |title=The Effect of Training Self-Awareness and Anger Management on Aggression Level in Iranian Middle School Students |journal=Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences |volume=46 |pages=987–991 |doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.05.235 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

In adolescent development, self-awareness has a more complex emotional context than in the early childhood phase. Elements can include [[self-image]], [[self-concept]], and [[self-consciousness]] among other traits that relate to Rochat's final level of self awareness, however self-awareness remains a distinct concept.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Sandu |first1=Cristina Marina |last2=Pânişoarã |first2=Georgeta |last3=Pânişoarã |first3=Ion Ovidiu |title=Study on the Development of Self-awareness in Teenagers |journal=Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences |date=May 2015 |volume=180 |pages=1656–1660 |doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.05.060 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Measurement ==
There are two common methods used to measure how severe an individual's lack of self-awareness is. The Patient Competency Rating Scale (PCRS) evaluates self-awareness in patients who have endured a traumatic brain injury.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leathem |first1=Janet M. |author-link1=Janet Leathem |last2=Murphy |first2=Latesha J. |last3=Flett |first3=Ross A. |date=August 9, 2010 |title=Self- and Informant-Ratings on the Patient Competency Rating Scale in Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=694–705 |doi=10.1076/jcen.20.5.694.1122 |pmid=10079045}}</ref> PCRS is a 30-item self-report instrument which asks the subject to use a 5-point Likert scale to rate his or her degree of difficulty in a variety of tasks and functions. Independently, relatives or significant others who know the patient well are also asked to rate the patient on each of the same behavioral items. The difference between the relatives' and patient's perceptions is considered an indirect measure of impaired self-awareness. The limitations of this experiment rest on the answers of the relatives. Results of their answers can lead to a bias. In addition, in terms of treatment effectiveness, this experimental method works better for individuals with moderate and severe traumatic brain injury, but less effectively for those with mild brain injury. This is because, although individuals with mild brain injury fall within the normal range in psychological test results, they may still experience cognitive difficulties. Therefore, these everyday difficulties are more apparent in subjective assessments and behavioral observations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Leathem |first=Janet M. |last2=Murphy |first2=Latesha J. |last3=Flett |first3=Ross A. |date=1998-10-01 |title=Self- and Informant-Ratings on the Patient Competency Rating Scale in Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1076/jcen.20.5.694.1122 |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology |doi=10.1076/jcen.20.5.694.1122 |issn=1380-3395}}</ref> These two limitations prompted a second method of testing a patient's self-awareness. Simply asking a patient why they are in the hospital or what is wrong with their body can give compelling answers as to what they see and are analyzing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Prigatano |first1=George P. |date=1999 |title=Diller lecture: Impaired awareness, finger tapping, and rehabilitation outcome after brain injury. |journal=Rehabilitation Psychology |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=145–159 |doi=10.1037/0090-5550.44.2.145}}</ref>

==Disorders==
=== Anosognosia ===
{{Main|Anosognosia}}
The medical term for not being aware of one's deficits is anosognosia, or more commonly known as a lack of insight. Having a lack of awareness raises the risks of treatment and service nonadherence.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Xavier |first1=Amador |title=Anosognosia (Lack of Insight) Fact Sheet |url=http://www.nami.org/Content/NavigationMenu/Mental_Illnesses/Schizophrenia9/Anosognosia_Fact_Sheet.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151101164343/http://www2.nami.org/Content/NavigationMenu/Mental_Illnesses/Schizophrenia9/Anosognosia_Fact_Sheet.htm |archive-date=November 1, 2015 |access-date=26 November 2014}}</ref> A wide variety of disorders are associated with anosognosia. For example, patients who are blind from [[Cerebral cortex|cortical]] [[lesion]]s might in fact be unaware that they are blind and may state that they do not suffer from any visual disturbances. Individuals with [[aphasia]] may be unaware of certain speech errors.<ref name=":02">{{cite journal |last1=Heilman |first1=K. M. |last2=Barrett |first2=A. M. |last3=Adair |first3=J. C. |title=Possible mechanisms of anosognosia: a defect in self–awareness |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences |date=29 November 1998 |volume=353 |issue=1377 |pages=1903–1909 |doi=10.1098/rstb.1998.0342 |pmid=9854262 |pmc=1692420 }}</ref> Individuals who suffer from [[Alzheimer's disease]] lack awareness; this deficiency becomes more intense throughout their disease.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sack |first1=M |last2=Cassidy |first2=JT |last3=Bole |first3=GG |title=Prognostic factors in polyarteritis |journal=The Journal of Rheumatology |date=December 1975 |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=411–20 |pmid=1533 }}</ref> A key issue with this disorder is that people who do have anosognosia and suffer from certain illnesses may not be aware of them, which ultimately leads them to put themselves in dangerous positions.<ref name=":02" />

===Autism spectrum disorder===
[[File:Autismbrain.jpg|thumbnail|Major brain structures implicated in [[autism]]]]
A 2008 study suggested that self-awareness in [[autistic]] individuals is primarily lacking in social situations, but when in private they are more self-aware and present. It is in the company of others while engaging in interpersonal interaction that the self-awareness mechanism seems to fail.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Uddin |first1=Lucina Q. |last2=Davies |first2=Mari S. |last3=Scott |first3=Ashley A. |last4=Zaidel |first4=Eran |last5=Bookheimer |first5=Susan Y. |last6=Iacoboni |first6=Marco |last7=Dapretto |first7=Mirella |title=Neural Basis of Self and Other Representation in Autism: An fMRI Study of Self-Face Recognition |journal=PLOS ONE |date=29 October 2008 |volume=3 |issue=10 |pages=e3526 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0003526 |pmid=18958161 |pmc=2568959 |bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.3526U |doi-access=free }}</ref> Higher functioning individuals on the autism spectrum disorder scale have reported that they are more self-aware when alone unless they are in sensory overload or immediately following social exposure.<ref name="pmid21207316">{{cite journal |last1=Uddin |first1=Lucina Q. |title=The self in autism: An emerging view from neuroimaging |journal=Neurocase |date=June 2011 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=201–208 |doi=10.1080/13554794.2010.509320 |pmid=21207316 |pmc=3117464 }}</ref> Self-awareness dissipates when an autistic is faced with a demanding social situation, possibly due to the behavioral inhibitory system which is responsible for self-preservation.<ref name="pmid21207316" /> A 2012 study of individuals with [[Asperger syndrome]] "demonstrated impairment in the 'self-as-object' and 'self-as-subject' domains of the Self-understanding Interview".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jackson |first1=Paul |last2=Skirrow |first2=Paul |last3=Hare |first3=Dougal Julian |title=Asperger Through the Looking Glass: An Exploratory Study of Self-Understanding in People with Asperger's Syndrome |journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |date=May 2012 |volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=697–706 |doi=10.1007/s10803-011-1296-8 |pmid=21647793 |s2cid=22219711 }}</ref>

===Schizophrenia===
[[Schizophrenia]] as a disease state is characterized by severe cognitive dysfunction and it is uncertain to what extent patients are aware of this deficiency. Medalia and Lim (2004) investigated patients' awareness of their cognitive deficit in the areas of attention, nonverbal memory, and [[verbal memory]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Medalia |first1=Alice |last2=Lim |first2=Rosa W. |title=Self-awareness of cognitive functioning in schizophrenia |journal=Schizophrenia Research |date=December 2004 |volume=71 |issue=2–3 |pages=331–338 |doi=10.1016/j.schres.2004.03.003 |pmid=15474903 |s2cid=19673249 }}</ref> Results from this study (N=185) revealed large discrepancy in patients' assessment of their cognitive functioning relative to the assessment of their clinicians. Though it is impossible to access one's consciousness and truly understand what a schizophrenic believes, regardless in this study, patients were not aware of their cognitive dysfunctional reasoning. 

A 1993 study suggests a correlation exists between patient insight, compliance, and disease progression. Patients with poor insight are less likely to be compliant with treatment and are more likely to have a poorer prognosis. Patients with hallucinations sometimes experience positive symptoms, which can include delusions of reference, thought insertion/withdrawal, thought broadcast, delusions of persecution, and grandiosity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amador |first1=XF |last2=Strauss |first2=DH |last3=Yale |first3=SA |last4=Flaum |first4=MM |last5=Endicott |first5=J |last6=Gorman |first6=JM |title=Assessment of insight in psychosis |journal=American Journal of Psychiatry |date=June 1993 |volume=150 |issue=6 |pages=873–879 |doi=10.1176/ajp.150.6.873 |pmid=8494061 |citeseerx=10.1.1.457.5515 }}</ref>

==Non-human animals==
{{Main|Animal consciousness}}
[[File:NICO looks at himself.jpg|thumb|250px|The mirror test is a simple measure of self-awareness.]]"[[Mirror test|Mirror tests]]" have been done on [[chimpanzee]]s, [[elephant]]s, [[dolphin]]s and [[magpie]]s. During the test, the experimenter looks for the animals to undergo four stages:<ref name="PlotnikEtAl2006">{{cite journal |last1=Plotnik |first1=Joshua |last2=Waal |first2=Frans |last3=Reiss |first3=Diana |year=2006 |title=Self recognition in an Asian elephant |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA]] |volume=103 |issue=45 |pages=17053–57 |bibcode=2006PNAS..10317053P |doi=10.1073/pnas.0608062103 |pmc=1636577 |pmid=17075063 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
# social response (behaving toward the reflection as they would toward another animal of their species)
# physical mirror inspection
# repetitive mirror testing behavior, and
# the mark test, which involves the animals spontaneously touching a mark on their body that would have been difficult to see without the mirror

The red-spot technique, created by [[Gordon G. Gallup]],<ref name="Reference 3">{{cite journal |last=Bekoff |first=M. |year=2002 |title=Animal reflections |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=419 |issue=6904 |page=255 |doi=10.1038/419255a |pmid=12239547 |s2cid=10070614 |doi-access=free}}</ref> studies self-awareness in primates. This technique places a red odorless spot on an anesthetized primate's forehead. The spot is placed on the forehead so it can only be seen through a mirror. Once the primate awakens, its independent movements toward the spot after it sees its reflection in a mirror are observed.

[[David DeGrazia]] identifies three types of self-awareness which animals may share with humans. Bodily self-awareness allows animals to understand that they are different from the rest of the environment. It explains why animals do not eat themselves. Bodily-awareness also includes [[proprioception]] and [[sensation (psychology)|sensation]]. Social self-awareness, seen in highly [[sociality|social animals]], allows animals to interact with each other. Introspective self-awareness is how animals might sense feelings, desires, and [[belief]]s. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Degrazia |first1=David |url=https://philosophy.columbian.gwu.edu/sites/philosophy.columbian.gwu.edu/files/image/degrazia_selfawarenessanimals.pdf |title=The Philosophy of Animal Minds |year=2009 |isbn=9780511819001 |editor1-last=Lurz |editor1-first=Robert W. |pages=201–217 |chapter=Self-awareness in animals |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511819001.012 |access-date=4 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160517071147/https://philosophy.columbian.gwu.edu/sites/philosophy.columbian.gwu.edu/files/image/degrazia_selfawarenessanimals.pdf |archive-date=17 May 2016}}</ref>

=== Apes ===
Chimpanzees and other apes—extensively studied species—are most similar to humans, with the most convincing findings and straightforward evidence of self-awareness in animals.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bard |first=Kim |year=2006 |title=Self-Awareness in Human and Chimpanzee Infants: What Is Measured and What Is Meant by the Mark and Mirror Test? |journal=[[Infancy (journal)|Infancy]] |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=191–219 |doi=10.1207/s15327078in0902_6}}</ref> During the red-spot technique, after looking in the mirror, chimpanzees used their fingers to touch the red dot on their forehead and, after touching the red dot they would smell their fingertips.<ref name="Reference 4">{{cite book |last1=Gallup |first1=Gordon G. |title=The Cognitive Animal: Empirical and Theoretical Perspectives on Animal Cognition |last2=Anderson |first2=James R. |last3=Shillito |first3=Daniel J. |publisher=MIT Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-262-52322-6 |editor1-last=Bekoff |editor1-first=Marc |pages=325–334 |chapter=The Mirror Test |editor2-last=Allen |editor2-first=Colin |editor3-last=Burghardt |editor3-first=Gordon M. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T-ztyW8eTnIC&pg=PA325 |chapter-url-access=subscription}}</ref> "Animals that can recognize themselves in mirrors can conceive of themselves," says Gallup.

=== Dolphins ===
Dolphins were put to a similar test and achieved the same results. [[Diana Reiss]], a psycho-biologist at the [[New York Aquarium]] discovered that [[bottlenose dolphin]]s can recognize themselves in [[mirror]]s.<ref name="Reference 2">{{cite journal |last=Tennesen |first=Michael |year=2003 |title=Do Dolphins Have a Sense of Self? |url=http://www.nwf.org/news-and-magazines/national-wildlife/animals/archives/2003/natural-inquiries-dolphin.aspx |url-status=dead |journal=[[National Wildlife]] |series=World Edition |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100809034735/http://www.nwf.org/news-and-magazines/national-wildlife/animals/archives/2003/natural-inquiries-dolphin.aspx |archive-date=2010-08-09}}</ref>

===Elephants===
In a 2006 study, one elephant out of three passed the mirror test.{{r|PlotnikEtAl2006}}

=== Magpies ===
Researchers also used the mark or mirror tests to study the [[magpie]]'s self-awareness.<ref name="Reference 6">{{cite journal |last1=Prior |first1=H. |last2=Schwarz |first2=A. |last3=Güntürkün |first3=O. |year=2008 |title=Mirror-Induced Behavior in the Magpie (''Pica pica''): Evidence of Self-Recognition |journal=[[PLOS Biology]] |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=e202 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0060202 |pmc=2517622 |pmid=18715117 |doi-access=free}}</ref> As a majority of birds are blind below the beak, Prior ''et al.'' marked the birds' neck with three different colors: red, yellow, and black (as an imitation, as magpies are originally black). When placed in front of a mirror, the birds with red and yellow spots began scratching at their necks, signaling the understanding of something different being on their bodies. During one trial with a mirror and a mark, three of the five magpies showed at least one example of self-directed behavior. The magpies explored the mirror by moving toward it and looking behind it. One of the magpies, Harvey, during several trials would pick up objects, pose, do some wing-flapping, all in front of the mirror with the objects in his beak. This represents a sense of self-awareness; knowing what is going on within himself and in the present. The authors suggest that self-recognition in birds and mammals may be a case of [[convergent evolution]], where similar evolutionary pressures result in similar behaviors or traits, although they arrive at them via different routes.<ref name="PLoS Biology ({{doi|10.1371/journal.pbio.0060202)}}">{{cite journal |last=Alison |first=Motluk |title=Mirror test shows magpies aren't so bird-brained |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14552-mirror-test-shows-magpies-arent-so-bird-brained/ |journal=[[New Scientist]] |url-access=subscription |access-date=26 November 2014}}</ref>

A few slight occurrences of behavior towards the magpie's own body happened in the trial with the black mark and the mirror. The authors of this study suggest that the [[black]] mark may have been slightly visible on the black feathers. "This is an indirect support for the interpretation that the behavior towards the mark region was elicited by seeing the own body in the mirror in conjunction with an unusual spot on the body."<ref name="Reference 6" />

There was a clear contrast between the behaviors of the magpies when a mirror was present versus absent. In the no-mirror trials, a non-reflective gray plate was swapped in the same size and position as the mirror. There were not any mark-directed self-behaviors when the mark was present, in color or in black.<ref name="Reference 6" /> The results show that magpies understand that a mirror image represents their own body; magpies have self-awareness.

== Other uses ==
=== Plants ===
[[Self-discrimination in plants]] is found within their roots, tendrils and flowers that avoid themselves but not others in their environment.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fukano |first1=Yuya |last2=Yamawo |first2=Akira |title=Self-discrimination in the tendrils of the vine Cayratia japonica is mediated by physiological connection |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |date=7 September 2015 |volume=282 |issue=1814 |pages=20151379 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2015.1379 |pmid=26311669 |pmc=4571702 }}</ref>

=== Science fiction ===
In [[science fiction]], self-awareness describes an [[essentialism|essential]] human property that often (depending on the circumstances of the story) bestows personhood onto a non-human. If a [[artificial intelligence|computer]], [[extraterrestrial life|alien]] or other object is described as "self-aware", the reader may assume that it will be treated as a completely human character, with similar rights, capabilities and desires to a normal human being.<ref>Robert Kolker ''[[Stanley Kubrick]]'s [[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'', p. 106, Oxford University Press US, 2006 {{ISBN|978-0-19-517452-6}}</ref> The words "[[sentience]]", "[[sapience]]" and "[[consciousness]]" are used in similar ways in science fiction.

===Collective self-awareness===
Alongside self-awareness seen as a personal capability, the same term may be applied to the self-awareness of groups or [[organisation]]s. Steffens ''et al''. note the "importance of both personal and collective dimensions of selfhood" when looking at [[leadership]].<ref>Steffens, N. K. ''et al.'' (2001), [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Adam-Kay-5/publication/348604267_Knowing_me_knowing_us_Personal_and_collective_self-awareness_enhances_authentic_leadership_and_leader_endorsement/links/60568d75299bf17367593dae/Knowing-me-knowing-us-Personal-and-collective-self-awareness-enhances-authentic-leadership-and-leader-endorsement.pdf Knowing me, knowing us: Personal and collective self-awareness enhances authentic leadership and leader endorsement], ''[[The Leadership Quarterly]]'', {{doi|10.1016/j.leaqua.2021.101498}}, accessed on 14 August 2024</ref> [[Pope Paul VI]], in his first [[encyclical letter]], ''[[Ecclesiam Suam]]'' (1964), refers to "an increased self awareness on the part of the [[Catholic Church|[Catholic] Church]]" as a fundamental requirement to ensure the church survived with a clear mission in the face of the changing secular context in which it operated.<ref>Pope Paul VI, [https://www.vatican.va/content/paul-vi/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_06081964_ecclesiam.html Ecclesiam Suam], paragraph 26, published on 6 August 1964, accessed on 14 August 2024</ref>

=== Robotics ===
{{main|Artificial consciousness}}
It has been proposed that robots which use internal models to [[robotics simulator|simulate their own actions]] could be classified as functionally self-aware. This definition does not concern itself with the philosophical question of whether these robots really are self-aware.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1142/9781783264186_0016 |chapter=Robots with Internal Models: A Route to Self-Aware and Hence Safer Robots |title=The Computer After Me |year=2014 |last1=Winfield |first1=Alan F. T. |pages=237–252 |isbn=978-1-78326-417-9 |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268745073_Robots_with_Internal_Models_A_Route_to_Self-Aware_and_Hence_Safer_Robots }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Philosophy|Psychology|Technology}}
*[[Self-concept]]
*[[Self-reflection]]
*[[Vertiginous question]]
*[[Philosophy of self]]

==References==
<!--ZoolJLinnSoc154:781.-->
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ashley |first1=Greg |last2=Reiter-Palmon |first2=Roni |title=Self-Awareness and the Evolution of Leaders: The Need for a Better Measure of Self-Awareness |journal=Journal of Behavioral and Applied Management |date=1 September 2012 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=2–17 |doi=10.21818/001c.17902 |url=https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/psychfacpub/7/ |doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/wcs.1670 |title=The cognitive neuroscience of self-awareness: Current framework, clinical implications, and future research directions |date=2024 |last1=Mograbi |first1=Daniel C. |last2=Hall |first2=Simon |last3=Arantes |first3=Beatriz |last4=Huntley |first4=Jonathan |journal=WIREs Cognitive Science |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=e1670 |pmid=38043919 |doi-access=free }}

{{Authority control}} 

[[Category:Concepts in epistemology]]
[[Category:Concepts in metaphysics]]
[[Category:Concepts in the philosophy of mind]]
[[Category:Metaphysics of mind]]
[[Category:Personhood]]
[[Category:Self]]